The Four Cardinal Languages: Nova Scotia’s Four Main Languages

Written by Daniel MacGregor

Thumbnail and Header Photo by Saint Mary’s University

The landmass jetting from the eastern seaboard of Canada has four names: Nova Scotia, Alba Nuadh, Acadie, and Mi’kma’ki.

These four titles (which has also included other portions of Atlantic Canada at times) represent the diverse history of the occupants of the region. Furthermore, these names are representative of the four cardinal languages of the major groups of people of Nova Scotia: Mi’kmaq, Gaelic, French, and English. This idea of Nova Scotia having four cardinal languages is not a new concept, despite speakers of three of the languages having faced descrimination by speakers of the fourth. For example, this conception of language in Nova Scotia has been included in monographs such as Nova Scotia: A Pocket History by Saint Mary’s University professor emeritus John Reid.

The four cardinal languages do not necessarily represent the four most popular languages in the province; according to the 2016 Census, out of a total sample of 912,300, the top four non-cardinal languages spoken most often at home are Arabic with 4260 speakers, Mandarin with 3,410 speakers, German with 1225 speakers, and Tagalog with 1065 speakers. On the other hand, English had 863,550 speakers, French had 14,460 speakers, Mi’kmaq had 2,560 speakers, and Scottish Gaelic had 60 speakers. Granted, these numbers do not take multilingual individuals into account. While the four cardinal languages are not necessarily the most prevalent in Nova Scotia, they do have a long history of being spoken within the province. Mi’kmaq, Cape Breton Gaelic (a dialect of Scottish Gaelic), and Acadian (a dialect of French) are spoken mainly in Nova Scotia, with presence only in other spots of Atlantic Canada. Meanwhile, languages like Arabic, German, and Mandarin are cosmopolitan languages and also have millions of speakers outside of Nova Scotia. In contrast, cardinal languages (with the exception of English) are endemic to the Atlantic Canada region. In addition to the endemic nature of these dialects, it is important to know their historical context to understand why they are known as the cardinal languages of Nova Scotia.

Photo by Tobias Negele on Unsplash

English:

Most Nova Scotians are either anglophones or fluent in English due to British colonization. The history of English, a language stitched together from dozens of other languages like French, Latin, and Germanic, is tied to the rise and spread of British colonialism. In the era of colonial warfare, the British and French fought incessantly for control over the region, until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ceded mainland Nova Scotia to the British, and the Treaty of Paris ceded Cape Breton in 1763 (all disregarding Mi’kmaq sovereignty). It is the most common and only official language of Nova Scotia.

As for learning, considering this article is in English, you probably already have a firm understanding of the language, but that does not mean that there isn’t room to take your understanding of the language to the next level. This learning can take the form of journalism, academic writing, creating stories, or crafting poetry. Local organizations offer the opportunity to learn these skills, such as the Writers Federation of Nova Scotia, which offers workshops (i.e. Foundations of Fiction), resources of aspiring writers, and writing competitions. Learn English Nova Scotia also provides testing and counselling to assist those wishing to improve their English skills. Furthermore, Saint Mary’s University Language Centre provides opportunities to learn and teach English, along with the regular courses offered by the Department of English Language and Literature, such as ENGL 1220 Literature and Science, and ENGL 2312 Varieties of English.

French/Acadian:

Acadian French is a dialect forged by French colonists (known as Acadians) who settled in peninsular Nova Scotia in the 1600s, mainly left independent from the rest of New France and later the British colonial government when mainland Nova Scotia was ceded to Britain in 1713. Developing independently of metropolitan French, Acadian French continued to be distinct even after the grand derangement conducted by the British authorities in the 1750s, where the people eventually journeyed back to southern Nova Scotia, the Pomquet area of Antigonish county, Isle Madame, and Chéticamp. Today the language is represented by the provincial Department of Acadian Affairs.

As for learning French in general, being a colonial language, it has spread throughout every continent, so it is easy to find places to learn French (such as the famous language-learning app Duolingo). Locally, L’Université Sainte-Anne is Nova Scotia’s only primarily French higher education institution. It offers general degrees taught in French for fluent speakers and programs such as part-time and full-time immersion courses, one-on-one tutoring options, intensive group programs, and evening courses for non-fluent French speakers. There is also the Alliance française, which offers French proficiency testing and courses at all skill levels. Furthermore, Saint Mary’s University has a French Department that offers from beginner courses to advanced classes for language learning, literature, and culture. Finally, for greater immersion, the Explore Program provides bursaries for a month-long French immersion stay at French institutions all over the country, including L’Université Sainte-Anne within Nova Scotia. 

Scottish/Cape Breton Gaelic:

The history of Gaelic is deeply tied to the immigration of Highland Scots (also known as Gaels) to the New World, settling primarily in eastern Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. The large population concentrated in the more isolated regions of Nova Scotia allowed Gaelic to survive as a language despite Anglo-centric policies and discrimination leading to the rapid decline of the language in the twentieth century. Like Acadian French, centuries separated from Europe led to the creation of a distinct dialect language known as Cape Breton Gaelic. Today, the language is represented by the provincial department of Gaelic Affairs .

As for learning the language, similar to French, yet more surprising, Scottish Gaelic is a full program on Duolingo. At Saint Mary’s University, the Atlantic Canada Studies program offers two introductory courses and two intermediate courses (https://smu-ca-public.courseleaf.com/undergraduate/courses-az/acst/).  Furthermore, The Gaelic College offers courses in person and online, from a conversational course, a writing course to seasonal series (different courses from music to dance lessons) . (https://gaeliccollege.edu/learn/online-learning/).

Mi’kmaq:

Mi’kmaq is the language of Mi’kmaw, the indigenous nation that has inhabited Nova Scotia since time immemorial. Mi’kmaq went from being the only primary language of Nova Scotia to being endangered by a multitude of colonial languages and settlers, and institutionalized discrimination against the language ands its speakers in various forms. Today, the Mi’kmaw nation is taking significant steps to preserve and teach the language, both within Indigenous schools and the general community. Today, the language is an integral part of the many Mi’kmaw representative organizations, such as the Grand Council, the Native Council of Nova Scotia, and the Union of Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq.

 As for learning the language, close to home, the Atlantic Canada Studies Program provides two introductory courses on Mi’kmaw. Unfortunately, there is no lesson plan on Duolingo. Still, some lesser-known apps have been created to facilitate the learning of the language. One example is the L’nui’suti app, available on the Apple App Store and Google App Store, that provides accessible education for those wishing to learn Mi’kmaq. Furthermore, if you look online, you can find dozens of small sites with language lessons and information.

Except for English, these languages had a history of marginalization and infringement by the English majority. However, with the resilience of the language’s native speakers, all three have made an impressive bounce back. There are places all over the province for all individuals to learn the four cardinal languages of Nova Scotia. These languages represent the cultures and history of four groups living in the same region and to learn them means to more intricately understand the land of four names.